The World's Environment and the Globalization of Environment

The twentieth century was marked with drastic environmental changes that shook a lot people and raised concerns for future generations. There were three speculated causes of these changes: 1) the world's population quadrupled in a single century, 2) the new ability to tap potential fossil fuel energy, and 3) the phenomenal economic growth from the advancement of science and technology.

Just like all the other revolutions, there was different types of environmentalist movements. In England, environmentalists calls for the abandonment of "dark satanic mills" caused by the industrial era. Others asked for the preservation of the "wilderness" from human exploitation. These are called the first wave of environmental movement and did not gain much supporters. The second wave of environmentalism was initiated by Rachel Carson when she published her book "Silent Spring" in 1962. In her book, she talked about the "chemical contamination of the environment that threatened both human health and the survival of many other species". She also talked about the "strange stillness" from the absence of the singings birds in the future. By early 1990s, there was about 14 million members of environmental organizations in the America. In Europe, environmental group Club of Rome warned about the exhaustion of resources from the growing and continuing industrialization.

The environmental movements in the developing countries were different from those in the West. There were fewer organizations and were more locally based. Members were from poor communities rather than the middle class and their concerns were based on food security, health and basic survival. They focused more towards the protection of their livelihood and the effects of large industrial factories owned by Corporations from the West.

The Globalization of Liberation: Comparing Feminist Movements

Feminist movements differ not just in different countries but in races and different areas within a country and I think it had a lot to do with type of oppression that they were experiencing. For the women in Western Europe and United States, they were focused in establishing their role in the society and also to be free from the expectations of what a typical housewife should be. But the African American women, also from Western Europe and United States, did not feel the need to fight for the same issues and that those issues were really more of something that concerns the white, middle class women. Did they not have any issues with working conditions because they have been and compared to their status when they were slaves, the new working conditions are much better. Being able to live close to their husbands and to become a housewife was also something that they consider as an improvement in the quality of life as a woman. And so when they decided to form their own feminist organizations, they were focused on racism and poverty. The African American feminist movement also had more consideration for cultural traditions such as female circumcision and polygamy. I guess coming from a culture that tries to preserve their traditions, they had better understanding that each culture is different and that as much we would like to move forward, it also good to keep some of cultural traditions with us because it is part of our identity. In the East African country in Kenya, the associations of women became a good source of support for one another during times of need. They achieved a sense of independence by achieving things without having to depend on their family or husband. In Morocco, the feminist movement were able to convince the liberal king to revise the Family Law Code that allowed hem to initiate divorce and claim child custody. In Chile, because were seen as "invisible", they were able to successfully organize as human rights activists fighting for the military dictatorship of General Augusto Pinochet. They a big role in bringing back democracy in Chile in 1990. Women in South Korea were also able to restore by protesting against the working conditions of young female workers in export industries. Not only were they paid poorly and frequently experienced sexual harassment, they were also housed on company dormitories that resembled a chicken coop. By 1970, not only did they develop many feminist movement, it also initiated class consciousness.

From the first part of the reading, we can the disagreement on different feminist organizations. Each one has different agenda and they didn't really agree on which issue should take precedence even after they gain an official position in the United Nations. Not only were they unable to meet a common ground, their differences even fueled anger, hatred and offensive attitude towards one another. Sometimes, the differences are not just tied with race and culture, it was associated with religion. I guess it's too complicated that its almost impossible to find a resolution.

Accelerating Global Interaction

Global Interaction and the Transformation of the World Economy
What factors contributed to economic globalization during the twentieth century?
1. After World War II, leading capitalist countries such as the United States vowed to never go through the same conditions as they did during the Great Depression. In order to that, they formed a post-globalization made up of institutions such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. This became the start of a somewhat free trade among major capitalist countries.
2.Technology continued to develop and made information travel faster and products ship faster and cheaper.
3. A country that has a growing population, together with growing economies and modernizing societies results to citizens that are hungry for further modern development.

Reglobalization
In what ways has economic globalization linked the world's peoples more closely together?
After the development of the "reglobalization" of the world economy, there was a significant increase in the circulation of goods, capital and people. Foreign direct investment emerged, which means companies from first world countries are setting up their labor-centered companies in third wold countries where they can get cheap labor, resources, tax breaks and more relax environmental regulations. If the first world countries are not bringing their companies to the third world countries, they are bringing people, mostly professional and skilled workers such as doctors, nurses and engineers, to their country. We are more familiar of these concepts today as outsourcing. With the increasing rate of unemployment, it has become one of the big debates but it is still hard to compete with the incentives that big companies are getting from it. Outsourcing continues to grow and has taken an unexpected expansion to other fields such as in medicine. An example would be the outsourcing of radiology services. Because of shortage of radiologists in the US, hospitals have now set up a remote radiology base in third world countries with an overflow of radiologists like India. After a radiology exam is performed, films are sent to the remote site and initial reading can be made. Hospital administrators argued that this has not only made services faster but also safer because with the initial reading, they'll be able to catch whatever is wrong with the patient right away, right when they are still in the facility. Patients on the other hand are more concerned about their privacy, with their medical information now circulating in different locations. The other term that we hear nowadays is medical tourism, where patients get treated and get surgeries done in countries where medical fees are cheaper compared to what they would've paid in the US even with insurance coverage.

Weaving Movements Together to Attain Social Justice by Dolores Huerta

 

            On March 14, 2013, I had the honor to listen to Dolores Huerta talk about her experience and beliefs about community engagement and social activism. The many community organization that she was able to form and her achievements in attaining social justice has earned her the Presidential Medal of Freedom that was awarded by President Obama and the U.S. Department of Labor Hall of Honor last year, 2012. Among the key topics that she talked about is the importance of labor union, the injustices around the world such as forced labor that she made relatable by bringing up forced labor within our society that most people are not aware of such as forced labor in prisons, and the social advancement that can be achieved by harnessing our own countries resources instead exploiting third world countries not just with their natural resources but also with human resources. She also talked about her background and how she was able to attain her achievements, which inspired me the most, because it made me realize that yes, education is important but the one thing that creates a big difference is the motivation and the drive to help others.

CH. 23: THE INDEPENDENCE AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE GLOBAL SOUTH

TOWARD FREEDOM: STRUGGLES FOR INDEPENDENCE

The first step towards independence is the collapse of the colonizing empires. The Austrian and Ottoman Empire ended after World War I. The Russian empire was brought down by the Soviet Union. The Japanese and German Empire ended after World War II. Inspired by the revolutions that were spurting in different areas at the time, nationalist movements in the colonized territories became the source of determination to gain independence. National self-determination was the power behind the Mexican Revolution, the Cuban Revolution, and even in the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.
The author of the book described the end of the European empires as an almost "natural phenomenon". It was destined to collapse. He described in such a way because 1: It is only natural for human beings to want to control themselves, and 2: Nationalism, where once again, people from the colonized territories wanted to express their culture and national identity that was suppressed and replaced with that of the Colonizing Empire's. The author also stated that when the European empire, it was its time to collapse. The US and Soviet Union has overpowered the European Empire and the UN formed an anti-colonial agitation platform.
Behind newly gained independence were the "fathers" of their new countries like Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Neru, Ho Chi Minh and Nelson Mandela. One similarity that these founding fathers have is that they were all from the "educated few" of their country.

COMPARING FREEDOM STRUGGLES

The Case of India: Ending British Rule
The group that started the independence from British rule movement in India is the Indian National Congress (INC) and was lead by Mohandas Gandhi. Gandhi was a firm believer of the "satyagraha", which means "truth force", and calls for an active and confrontational yet non-violent political action. His leadership was unique in a way that he was able to gain supporters from the opposing groups of peasants, intellectuals and artisans, capitalists and socialists, and Hindus and Muslims. These groups might have united while they were trying to gain independence but they quickly separated as soon as their agenda was achieved. The formation of East Pakistan from India due to the inability to unite the Hindus and Muslims.

The Case of South Africa: Ending Apartheid
In South Africa, the independence that they were seeking was not from the European Empire but from the white settler minority that has government and economic control. Just like in India, a group led by the "educated few" led the independence movement called the African National Congress (ANC). Gandhi's counterpart in India was Nelson Mandela. And just like in India, after they gained independence, Africa was also divided, not on religious lines but on race, ethnicity and ideology.

Evolving Notions of Rights and Responsibilities Relating to Property and Work Relationships

"Living Justice"
by Thomas Massaro

Section 5: Property Ownership in Modern Society: Rights and Responsibilities

This section of the reading tackled the interlaced yet conflicting issue of the common goods and individual ownership. The Catholic Church strong supports the notion that everything in this world is a gift from God to all mankind and should therefore be available to everyone but it is also hard to ignore the benefits that are reaped by individuals who knows how to manage resources wisely. To those individuals, since they alone worked in cultivating and growing the resources, then they alone should be the only one that should get the benefits from it. But we can argue this part once again with the notion that resources are not equally divided. Not everyone worked hard for the fruits of their labor and not everyone has the tools needed for success readily available to them. The Catholic Church then argues that those who are wealthy should not just think of themselves and use the resources in ways that would make other people suffer. I think the main focus of their argument is exploitation. As we have learned in class, during the development of industrialization, exploitation was not necessarily seen as a bad thing. It was merely a necessity for businesses to profit. But as industrialization further progressed, large corporations grew bigger and bigger and labor workers became poorer and poorer. I guess what the Catholic Church wants to point out is that as the beneficiary of exploited and instigator of such poverty, those who are wealthy have the responsibility to help the exploited laborers.

Section 6: The Dignity of Work, Rights of Workers, and Support for Labor Unions

One of the greatest accomplishment during the uprising of industrialization is the development of labor union. With laborers as an organized group, they were able to fight off exploitations such as inhumane work conditions, subpar wages and unreasonable corporate demands. Corporate owners are of course in opposition of the organization and refuse to give power to the people by forming a union amongst themselves and tried to turn the table by saying that labor unions have unrealistic demands. I guess any type of power is vulnerable to abusive use but it's still hard to argue that a laborers can work in an environment that is free of exploitation without a union.

The second part of this section focused on the "need" for work for it give individuals a sense of "purpose". In theological teachings, this was addressed in that, humans are God's co-creators. It also gives people a chance to work with one another which improves human relation. And this is also the reason why laborers should not be seen as a mere commodity but as God's children that should be given opportunity to fully develop their skills and ability.

Communism in Russia and China

Communism was derived from the teaching of Karl Marx who believed that in order to get rid of inequality and division between classes within a society, land and private properties has to be equally redistributed among all members in the community and rulers elected must only have the sole purpose of serving the people and of no influence of religion and capitalism. This idea was an echo of the Frech Revolution that became very popular during the 1970's, right after World War II, and had the most significance in China and Russia.

Between Russia and China, the commencement, implementation and termination of communism differs greatly. In Russia, its initiation was like a kick start. The revolution was achieved in just one year, 1917. It started by overthrowing the ruling Romanov dynasty, followed by the upheavals of the middle-class, then the peasants seized and burned their landlord's estates, just like in the Haitian Revolution. In the end, a small socialist party called the Bolsheviks, were able to gain control of Russia and elected Vladimir Ulyanov as its leader. Even after battling several local and international forces, the Bolsheviks were able to maintain control of Russia and gained more supporters as it showed their ability to fight off exploiters.

In China, the development did not develop as quickly as it did in Russia. It was rather a long and slow, probably because they Karl Marx and his ideologies was not introduced in China until the early twentieth century. It was founded in 1921, in a small group with only sixty members, called the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) but its charismatic leader named Mao Zedong was able to expand and transform its strategy in ways that was different from its Russian counterpart. Unlike Russia, even though the foundation of communism depended on industrialization, it started in rural areas within the Chinese peasants. Along with the uprising of the peasants was the feminist revolution, where women were determined to establish their position in the society, make alterations to the constitution of marriage and pushed for better employment benefits and accommodation. Sadly, this huge uproar from women did not last long. In the end, the male dominated communist parties hushed the feminist revolution.

On the other hand, communism in both countries ended in a similar way: self-destruction. Both were scared to lose control and became almost paranoid of possible enemies within their own government. What initial purpose to seek out equality later turned into dictatorship that oppressed and violated human rights. The fruits of communism were the "Terror" or the "Great Purges" in Russia and the "Chinese Cultural Revolution" were their own government sought out and accused their own citizens as political enemies with no right for trial and were either sent to labor camps or sentenced with death. It wasn't long until their started accusing their own officials and ultimately ended the communist reign in both countries.

The Ethics of Colonial Relationship

Living Justice

Excerpt from Thomas Massaro

Section 1 and 7

The main concept of this section is the Catholic Church's strong position in addressing human rights and equality. These moral guidelines that they had set up are based on the conviction that all humans are created from the image and likeness of God and therefore should be treated like how we would treat God which is with the uttermost respect and dignity. And this rights for equal treatment will never be relinquished regardless of their background and wrong doing. In stressing inequality, the Catholic Church addressed the growing gap between the very wealthy and those who can barely survive. Not everyone is are responsible for their own success and misfortune. Just like how some people got lucky that they were born with a wealthy family or in place where there is more opportunity for a more successful life, there are also people that just happen to be born with a poor family and in poorer places where the tools that they need to improve their lives are unavailable. 

The Catholic Church may have a lot of theological documents and evidences that can back up their conviction but it is with much difficulty to claim the obligations that comes with it. And with these, Popes often address moral obligations in their encyclicals, calling people from First World countries to help those who are in need. As brothers and sisters in faith, it is within our duty to aid in elevation of world poverty and to avoid "selfishness and isolationism" (p. 99). Actions that can cause changes doesn't have to be big. It can start in simple things such as not using that are produced in sweatshops to show opposition to work injustice. In my own guideline, it's as simple as doing something good to others, even if its something small, in hopes that it might inspire them to do the same to others and hopefully it'll become a chain of good deed. 

To end this blog, here's the video of Pope Francis' homily urging to serve the weakest and the poorest.

CH. 20 CONTINUED: BELIEVING AND BELONGING, CULTURAL CHANGE AND IDENTITY

The exposure to the European culture during their colonial rule brought about cultural changes in Asian and African societies. Colonized peoples had to change their way of living. These changes might have been forced upon them at the beginning but some were by choice. I guess the best way to describe it is that it is like a cultural evolution. It was a change in a population, induced by their environment and the result of the desire to adapt.

EDUCATION

The beginning of this section began with the sentence, "For an important minority, it was the acquisition of Western education, obtained through missionary or government schools, that generated a new identity". For a while, I was fixed on the words "important minority". Why were the colonized people considered the minority when in actuality, they made up the majority of the population? I guess the identification on who is the minority or the majority at the time depended on the power and ability to rule and not on the number in a population. But moving on from that sentence, through wester education, the colonized people saw a way to improve their social status and avoid forced labor. They wanted high salaries, a position in the government, businesses and organizations. But their wants didn't stop there. They also wanted to attain an elite status and to be seen equal with the whites. And the best way to do that is to eat, dress, live in houses like the Europeans and marry in long white dresses instead of their traditional wedding dress. From the literate christians, a new group of people was formed and they were a perfect copy of their rulers, including racism but much worse because they were prejudice against their own race.

RELIGION

Europeans missionaries might have brought christianity to the colonial territories but it was the natives that carried out its spread through the remote villages and local communities. The natives were very open to the new religion and even built the churches and the schools. They were hoping that the European Gods will grant them the same achievements and social improvement. But how they will welcome christianity was still up to them. In Africa, christianity became Africanized with the combination of traditional practices which we now call "African Reformation".

Chapter 20: Colonial Encounters

Chapter Introduction: Maintaining Racial Boundaries

Chapter 20 started with a story of the author's travel experience in Ethiopia where he met an Englishman while hitchhiking across Kenya. The author observed while the children who were selling baskets and other tourist items were very capable of speaking English, the Englishman insisted on responding in Swahili. He was given a simple explanation that Europeans there generally did not speak English with the "natives" but several years later, the author found a better explanation of the action. One of them is that the Europeans were scared of the possible "dangers" that it would place on white women and girls and the other, and probably the root of all the fear, is the possibility of an uprising against the government and the Europeans. By simply depriving the natives of knowledge of English language, the Europeans are able to maintain oppression. The English language poses as a key or a foundation of the native's liberation and the Europeans are simply unwilling to share it.

A Second Wave of European Conquest

The second phase of the European colonial conquest started on 1750 and lasted until 1900 with more focus in Asia and Africa such as Germany, Italy, Belgium, United States, and Japan. It was an echo of the Industrial Revolution as their "motives and activities were shaped by the military capacity and economic power that the Industrial Revolution conveyed" (p. 590). Military force or threat was used in order to gain control. This was further strengthened by the invention of the repeating rifles and machine guns.

The Power of Guns

From this part of the reading, we can see the sudden development of courage as soon as stronger weapons are obtained. Prior to acquisition of such military power, the Europeans were less likely to get involve in direct confrontation and were said to be "less likely to provoke wars" (p. 590). It is interesting to see how quickly that changed as soon as they were armed with better weapons that can give them power over a lot of disadvantaged territories. This would be a good time to reflect on the current petition on gun control. Men usually don't have the courage and sense of power over other people's life until they are armed with weapons that can result in instant death. It is by these weapons that the Europeans were able to build their colony almost everywhere they wanted to because everywhere else had less powerful or no guns at all. At this point, I can hear gun adversaries saying that maybe had guns like the Europeans, they wouldn't have been easily colonized. But I doubt that would really stop the Europeans. In these case, they would probably proceed and the other party will try to create better weapons until it will all just be a gun show where the ones with the bigger, faster firing guns will win. It will all just be a cycle, and it won't stop until someone takes away the main cause. In may opinion, the best way to stop gun violence is for ordinary citizens to not have access to any guns at all.

Continuation of the Second Wave of Conquest
Overall, the second colonization attempt was very similar to the first one but with different players. Territories were acquired the same way: military force, diseases that eradicated 75% or more of the Aborigines in Australia and the Maori's in New Zealand, and internal rivalries. In places like the Philippines and the Hindus, their former conquerors were simply displaced by another.

The Communist Manifesto: The Bourgeois and The Proletarians

Marx started the Manifesto with a description of the never-ending struggle between classes of the society. The rise of the Bourgeois and the Proletarians was no different from the class antagonism in history. The new classes that were developed was nothing more than a simplified form of the old ways of oppression.

The Bourgeois
All throughout the reading, the idea to keep in mind is communism. Communism, as defined in dictionary.com, is a system of social organization in which all economic and social activity is controlled by a totalitarian state dominated by a single and self-perpetuating political party. The bourgeoisie is that single and self-perpetuating political party.
In the Rise of Industrial Revolution, the trade system pushed for a feudal system that is monopolized. The guild masters were replaced by the manufacturing middle class and the division of labor between different guilds was replaced with division of labor in a workshop. From the series of revolutions in production and exchange, the modern bourgeoisie was born and from each step was always accompanied with a political change.
Among all these political change, the bourgeoisie has played the most revolutionary part. They were the exploiters. They exploited not just the land, the environment, materials and resources, and most of all, they exploited people. They have needs that cannot be satisfied and knows no limitation because they were never given one in the first place. It was as if they own the world, wanting to conquer everything. They can buy everything and everyone. To be more precise, their money can buy everything and everyone.
And then the epidemic of over-production came about. It was a crisis that the bourgeoisie has no control over. Their solution is either a "destruction of a mass of productive forces, or by the conquest of new markets, or by the more thorough exploitation of the old ones." We can easily relate this with outsourcing. As soon as laborers organized unions and protested for higher wages, manufacturing companies responded by outsourcing jobs and sometimes the whole company to other places where labor and resources are cheap. This solution worked out so well and we can see that it is slowly working its way up to labors that we never thought can be outsourced such as those in the medical field.

The Proletarians
Marx described the proletariats as the "people that the bourgeoisie has called upon to wield weapons for them, which is also what will kill them." To the bourgeois, they were referred to as commodity. They are a possession, belonging, merchandise. Yet they are important to their survival.
The topic in the reading that I found interesting was the alienation in proletarians. Alienation emerged during the Industrial revolution because men became nothing more than an "appendage of the machine". They are an attachment, a supplement, an accessory. There was no connection between the producer and the product. As these continues on, the repulsion of the nature of one's job grows. The working class were not only are they enslaved by the bourgeoisie and the over-looker, even the machines are superior of them. Yes, we have reached the point where gender no longer matter in the labor industry. Everyone is now equal as instruments of labour.
In my work experience in the hospital, alienation is probably something that is not very common. Most of the time, the problem is that workers are too involved in their work, in which case, alienation is not from their work but from their own self. They become too involve with their work that their work starts to define who they are. There is a lost of personal life. I'm sure that this is something that is common to anyone that is passionate about their work. I guess is to find balance. Or maybe just finding that something that you can passionate about so that working will never feels like work.

CHAPTER 18: REVOLUTIONS OF INDUSTRIALIZATION

In the beginning of the chapter, there was a question asked that I found very interesting:
"Are we at the beginning of a movement leading to a worldwide industrialization, stuck in the middle of a world permanently divided into rich and poor countries, or approaching an end of an environmentally unsustainable era?"
If you ask me, I think that we're way past the beginning of a worldwide industrialization. Are we stuck in the middle of a permanently divided rich and poor countries? Yes, we are currently stuck in that situation but I wouldn't say permanently because there is certainly an awareness and effort to help struggling countries. Are we approaching an end of an environmentally unsustainable era? I would like to think so and from the level of awareness that we have now, I think that we have a big chance on heading towards that direction.

Another interesting idea that I found from the reading is that Europe is not the initiator but it is the center of the Industrial Revolution. The surge in industrial productivity in Britain started between 1750 and 1900, with the invention of steam engine, enabling them to produce locomotive machineries and oceangoing ships. Way before this event, the Islamic world and China had already experienced technological and scientific expansion but declined for some reason at the same time that Industrial Revolution began in Europe. We can see here that once again, the author was making an effort of pulling away from Eurocentrism.

The key for their success was the "culture of innovation". It was the obsessive belief that there is an infinite ways to make things better. Their Scientific Revolution did not focus much on logic and reasoning but more on observation and experimentation, invention of mechanical devices and practical commercial application. This is almost like comparing people that are book smart and street smart and in this case, those that are street smart became more successful because they were able to apply to their knowledge in real world.

As the first Industrial Society developed, each social class experienced its effect differently. Landowning aristocrats did not get most of the benefits as they lost political power from the rising middle class that eventually abolished high tariffs on foreign agricultural imports. In other words, they were not the only that had access on lavish textiles and food. And just as middle class business became successful, they were also able to send their children to Oxford or Cambridge University and eventually earned nobility titles from Queen Victoria.

I find it interesting that during this time, women suddenly became the center of middle class families. Men found the capitalist world as cutthroat and heartless, and home is the one place where they can find refuge. The idea of domestication was preferred by women because they were given authority to take charge at home and to manage the family's food expenses. We can still see this type of family setting in many parts of the world. Women are the homemaker, in charge of taking care of the house, children and feeding the family. But we are also in the transition of a change in family roles as more men become stay home dads.

To end this blog, I thought I'd show the 2012 Olympics Opening Ceremony in London.

The French Revolution

King Louis XVI called an assembly between the Estates General, made up of the clergy, the nobility and the commoners, wanting to discuss a new tax system that is modern yet still in favor of the upper estates that makes up 2% of the population. At this time, majority of the commoner, the French soldiers that had just returned home from assisting the American colonists are still fired up from the revolution that they have just witnessed, and decided to put an end to the unfair taxation by forming a resistance group called the National Assembly. From this group, the Declaration of the rights of Man and Citizen arise, stating, “men are born and remain free and equal in rights” (p. 504). And this how the French Revolution started.

The French Revolution was much more violent compared to the American Revolution. People attacked castles of their lords and burned payment and debt documents. I wonder if the main reason for such violent reaction was the desire for fast results, which seems to be what was accomplished, even with slavery. Compared to the American Revolution, the new government structure still excluded women and slaves and seems to be something that we are still struggling to resolve until now. But these fast results came with a high price of ten thousands of lives during the Terror of 1793-1794. The irony was when committee leader Maximilien Robespierre, who was prosecuting the enemies of the revolution, was subjected to the guillotine himself after he was accused of tyranny and dictatorship. Coming such dark past, when the French people decided to create a new society, they decided to wipe off everything in order to start in a clean slate. 

Chapter 17: The Atlantic Revolutions and Their Echoes

The Atlantic Revolutions

The Atlantic Revolutions came about right after the Enlightenment, which must’ve been anticipated. People were seeking out the truth and throwing out inherited knowledge. The idea to improve social conditions by changing the current political and social arrangement was surely to follow. The main idea behind the Atlantic Revolutions was “popular sovereignty”, which means a government that is separated from the church and established tradition. It was a push for new leadership, where liberty, equality, free trade, religious tolerance, and human rationality are present. Within this new governance, philosopher John Locke brought the idea of “social contract”. The social contract is the agreement between the rulers and ruled, with serving its people as the main priority.

What I found interesting about the social contract is that it was basically an agreement between the middle class white men. The black slaves, women, Native Americans, and men without properties did not benefit from this agreement. In other words, the newly formed liberty did not create equality. 

The Scientific Revolution and Scientific Discrimination

A New Way of Thinking: The Birth of Modern Science

From religion, today’s reading shifted its focus on science. The Scientific Revolution to be exact. The Scientific Revolution occurred between the mid-sixteenth and early eighteenth centuries. It was a time when people decided to explore outside of religious scriptures and culturally inherited wisdom. The scientific concepts that emerged were a huge eye opener since the facts that were discovered were very different to what they currently believed in. In their conquest for the truth, the scholars had to knock down the foundation of their knowledge and understanding and basically had to start from scratch. This reminds of Descartes’ “Meditation on First Philosophy” where he encouraged skepticism and to never trust something like your senses if it deceived you even just once. The church did not see the Scientific Revolution as something that was driven by their motivation to figure out the truth but more of a rebellion. Religion in fact was the reason why scientific development was not significant in some areas of the world like the Islamic especially since the Europeans actually derived their scientific concepts from the Arab medical texts, astronomical research and translations of Greek classics. Science and religion naturally contradicts each other and we still this until now.

The part of the reading that caught my attention was how science was used to legitimize racial and gender inequality, also called scientific racism. The textbook mentioned Voltaire on his view on Enlightenment from the Scientific Revolution but it didn’t mention his support on scientific racism. He believed that the Africans evolved from monkey while the Caucasians were created from the image of God. One of the biggest events in history that is connected to scientific racism was the Holocaust. We can see in this occurrence how knowledge can be manipulated and become dangerous. If scientific racism is to progress, I see it as something like the movie “Gattica”. One of the lines in the movie says that it was “a world where they have discrimination down to science” as the technology enable them to read an individual’s genomes and phenotype. 

Chapter 15: Part I - Global Commerce (1450 - 1750)

The first part of Chapter 15 talked about the European and Asian commerce, the silver and global commerce, and the "world hunt": fur in global commerce.

There are two things that I got me particularly interested throughout the reading. The first one is the Spanish colonization of the Philippines, and the second one is the European and Indian fur trade. As someone who was born and raised in the Philippines, it was interesting for me to read about my country's role in the globalization during the early modern era. Because the Philippines was made up of hundreds of small islands, it was culturally diverse and organized with small and highly competitive chiefdoms. Being found by the Europeans at such estate, it was easy for them to take over. The book mentioned Magellan, as the voyager that discovered the Philippines representing the Spanish crown. From what I remember, he was portrayed as a hero and savior in my history books in the Philippines. It was as if the Native peoples didn't know any better and he was the person that opened their eyes to the truth about life. I have a few thoughts of why he was viewed as a heroic figure. One, was that because our books, and the education of the native people, was mandated by the Spanish themselves. Therefore, just like how the Europeans tried to justify the Great Dying by saying that it was an occurrence that is by the will of God, they portrayed themselves in the books that they used to teach the native people as heroes. The other one is the enforcement of Christianity. Prior to the introduction of Christianity, the religion that the native people had was animism, where they worship inanimate objects or phenomena. When the Spanish conquerors taught the natives about God, and considering how Christianity considers people that worships inanimate objects as sinners, the native might have seen the Spanish as their saviors, making them realize of their sinful way of living.

I also found the European and Indian fur trade interesting because of its heavy impact in the Indian culture. The Europeans didn't pay the Indians with silver or any monetary form for the fur but paid them guns, blankets, metal tools, rum, and brandy. This trade goods, especially rum and brandy,  are the ones that left a heavy impact in the Indian culture, and we still see its effects until now. Prior to the fur trade, the Indians were not exposed to alcohol. It was very easy for them to develop an addiction because there was very little time to adjust and it was easily available. A quote from the Iroquois leaders in the book says, " These wicked Whiskey Seller, when they have once got the Indians in liquor, make them sell their very clothes form their backs... If this practice be continued, we must be inevitably ruined."(p.448). This statement claimed to be true until now. Here is a link to the NY Times article I read:
http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/03/us/wind-river-indian-reservation-where-brutality-is-banal.html

Part II of Chapter 14: Empires and Encounters

Countering Eurocentrism

One of the biggest debate among scholars and students is the idea that early modern era evolved from European Empire and is therefore a constitution of the European culture. It's true that their ways of expansion is unique and played a big role in the modern society, but at the same time that the Europeans were building their Empire, the Russian, Chinese, Mughal and Ottoman empires were also being built, yet their stories are often not as well highlighted. 

Among all the other Empires built around the same era, I found the making of the China Empire interesting. First off, they didn't force their culture into the native people. In fact, they tried to preserve their culture like in Mongolia, where they fear that their "soft" ways might compromise the Mongols' fighting spirit and will therefore weaken their military power. Buddhist monks, people of noble rank, and associated with monasteries were given tax and labor service exemption. They also didn't see themselves as having power over the people that they have taken over but rather talked about the invasion more as a unification of the poples of the central Eurasia.

The new Chinese empire lasted for eighty years, and I think that the key to their long reign was their respect for other culture. The way I see it, there was probably little resistance from the native people because the conquerers didn't try to change the way they were living their lives. It's when people that are trying to take over tries to change things that are very important to us like religion and when they introduce epidemic diseases that we see outrage and resistance from native people. 

The European Expansion and The Great Dying

One of the empires built during the Early Modern Era and is considered most prominent is the European empires in the Americas. It was distinct because the Spanish did not conquer their neighboring territories until later on but started their expansion in the Caribbean. By the 18th century, they have taken over the most of the Americas. 

There are certain factors that contributed to European expansion. One of them was geography. Europe, compared to its Asian competitors, is much closer the Americas. The air currents was also in their favor with the Atlantic wind blowing in the same direction. It was also easier for the Europeans to find allies in areas they were trying to conquer since there was already a division present within the local societies.    Their greatest advantage was the native's inability to build resistance because among the plants, animals, and people that the Europeans brought over was diseases that they had no immunities and practically wiped out society after society. This event is called the Great Dying and described by one scholar as the "greatest tragedy in the history of human species".

The diseases that brought about the Great Dying are called Old World Diseases and includes chicken pox, malaria, measles and yellow fever. During the Great Dying, up to 90% of the Native American population died. The peoples of the Caribbean Islands disappeared 50 years after Columbus' arrival. 

Regardless of all the disadvantages that the Europeans had during their expansion, what might have greatly contributed to their success was their motivation. The Europeans have summarized their motives of expansion by saying, "We came here to serve God and the King, and also to get rich". 

I thought that it was interesting that the epidemic that the Europeans brought about became their greatest advantage during their colonization. It was very sad to think that an entire human population was almost wiped out because of the selfish motivations. 

Introduction to Part 4: The Early Modern World (1450 - 1750)

The Big Picture

The Early Modern Era was three centuries long and lasted from 1450 to 1750. The term "early modern era" means that there was early signs of modernization such as the beginning of globalization, the sprout of individual modern societies and the expansion of the European affairs throughout the world. The latter was the most obvious illustration of globalization. One of the most important event during this period was the Columbian exchange where not only was the mass transport of plants and animals carried over people and diseases all over the world as well. Europeans retained power over areas they conquered by pushing Christianity to local people. Russians advanced to the Pacific thru Siberia while China branched out deeper into Inner Asia and the Ottoman Empire took over part of the Middle East, North Africa and Southeastern Europe.

Another sign of modernity is the spread of American food such as corn and potatoes to China, Japan, India, and Europe. Ironically, world population more than doubled even with the spread of disease and stunted growth of African population due to slavery. The Scientific Revolution in Europe was the most obvious sign of modernization as members of high society changed their view of the world, approach to knowledge and understanding of traditional Christianity.

There was an obvious suggestion of signs of movement towards the modern era but European world domination and fully modern societies were not a "sure thing". Europeans may have governed the Americas and the world's sea routes but they didn't have much power in mainland Asia and Africa. Islam was the fastest growing religion in Asia and Africa, not Christianity. 

Since it was only the beginning, there was still a clear sign of the past era. Some people in European, Islamic and Chinese societies refused to embrace modernization and urged to revert back to traditional living. In ways, it may be more proper to call this era as a mixture of the what was new and old.


Source:
"Ways of the World: A Brief Global History" by Robert W. Strayer, pages 397-399. 

First Blog

Our first assignment in our history class is create our first post.

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